Sport and Exercise Psychology

1. Sport and Exercise Psychology Chapter 9

2. Definition and Scope • “the systemic scholarly student of behavior, feelings, and thoughts of people engaged in sport, exercise, and physical activity.” (Vealey) • the psychological and mental aspects of participation in sport and exercise, seeking to understand how psychological processes influence and are influenced by participation (AAASP) • “this dynamic field can enhance the experience of men, women, and children of all ages who participate in physical activity, ranking from those who do so for personal enjoyment to those who pursue a specific activity at the elite level” (ISSP)

3. Questions addressed… • What is the personality profile of an elite athlete? • How does anxiety influence performance? • What are the psychological benefits of participation in regular physical activity? • What factors influence an individual’s adherence to a rehabilitation program? • How does self-confidence influence performance? • What are effective intervention strategies to enhance performance?

4. Historical Development • Late 1890s and early 1900s: Norman Triplett initiates research on what became known as the Social Facilitation Theory. • 1920s – 40s: Griffith known as the “father of sport psychology”, began to develop and apply sport psychology • 1940-1965: growth of research programs in motor learning and sport psychology • Johnson – emotions and competition • Lawther – The Psychology of Coaching

5. Historical Development • Late 1960s & 1970s: emerges as subdiscipline of PE • 1979: Journal of Sport Psychology begins publication. • 1980s: Researchers embrace an applied approach • 1986: Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) was organized. • Exercise psychology evolved as a specialized area of study. • Increase interest by clinically trained psychologists • 1988: Journal of Sport Psychology became known as Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology • 1990s-present • Rich diversity in approaches to the field and areas of study.

6. Psychological Benefits of PA • Improves health-related quality of life. • Improves one’s mood. • Alleviates symptoms of mild depression. • Reduces anxiety. • Aids in managing stress. • Enhances self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. • Offers opportunities for affiliation with others.

7. Psychological Benefits of PA • Offers opportunities to experience “peak” moments. • Provides recreation and a change of pace. • Invites individuals to challenge themselves and strive for mastery. • Offers creative and aesthetic experiences. • Increasing recognition of physical activity as a therapeutic modality.

8. Exercise and Adherence • Nearly 50% of patients fail to comply with their medical treatment. • Adherence to supervised exercise programs ranges from 50% to 80%. • Only 30% of individuals who begin an exercise program will be exercising at the end of 3 years. • What can be done to promote continued involvement?

9. Motivation • Influences initiation, maintenance, and intensity of behavior. • Internal and external factors affect motivation. • Intrinsic motivation – participates to satisfy individual’s own desires, enjoyment, needs, and aspirations • External motivation – participates to gain external rewards • Intrinsic motivation helps sustain participation. • Focus on creating opportunities to enhance competence and self-efficacy.

10. Motivation • Motivation is critical to achievement. • Goal-setting a critical facet of motivation • Short-term goals. • Long-term goals.

11. Classic learning theories • Learning a new behavior is achieved by altering the many small behaviors that compose the overall behavior. • Break behavior down into smaller goals to be achieved. • Work incrementally toward goal. • Reinforcement is important; provide rewards and incentives (both immediate and long-range).

12. Health Belief Model • Adoption of a health behavior depends on the person’s perception of four factors: • Severity of potential illness • Susceptibility to illness • Benefits of taking action • Barriers to action • Self-efficacy is an important component of this model.

13. Social Cognitive Theory • Behavior change is influenced by environmental factors, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself. • Self-efficacy is central to this model. • Individual must believe in his or her ability to perform the behavior and must perceive an incentive for changing the behavior. • Outcomes must be valued by the individual.

14. Theory of Reasoned Action & Planned Behavior • Behavior influenced strongly by intention to change. • Individual’s attitude toward change is important – what outcomes achieved and values gained from changing ? • Opinions of relevant others regarding change plays a role. • Perceived control over behavior critical factor in change.

15. Transtheoretical model • Stages of change • Precontemplation • Contemplation • Preparation • Action • Maintenance • Termination • Decisional balance - pros and cons • Self-efficacy • Target intervention to individual’s current stage.

16. Ecological approach • Development of individual skills emphasized as well as creating supportive, health-promoting environment. • Environmental & societal influences and limitations on health behavior considered when planning for behavior change.

17. Exercise Dropout • Low self-motivation • Depression • Low self-efficacy • Denial of seriousness of one’s health condition • Obesity • Type A behavior pattern • Smokers • Blue-collar workers • Perception that exercise has few health benefits • Inactive lifestyle • Sedentary occupations • Lack of social support • Family problems • Interference of job-related responsibilities • Inconvenience • High-intensity exercise

18. Exercise Adherence • Educational approaches • Increase participants’ knowledge and understanding of the benefits. • Behavioral approaches • Reinforcement • Contracting • Self-monitoring • Goal-setting • Enhancement of self-efficacy

19. Exercise Adherence • Program Design • Increase social support available to participants. • Offer programs at convenient times and locations. • Goal-setting and periodic assessment. • Enthusiastic leaders. • Strong communication. • Establishment of rapport. • Consideration of individual needs and interests.

20. Rehabilitation Adherence • Strategies to enhance adherence to a rehabilitation program are important for sports medicine programs. • Adherence can be increased by: • Providing social support • Goal setting • Effective communication • Tailoring program to individual needs • Monitoring progress • Collaborative approach to accomplishing goals

21. Personality • Impact of athletics on personality development. • Relationship between personality and athletic performance. • Do athletes differ from non-athletes? • Can athletes in certain sports be distinguished from athletes in other sports? • Do individuals participate in certain sports because of their personality characteristics? • Do highly skilled athletes in a sport have different personality characteristics than the lesser skilled athletes? • Can personality predict success in sport? • Each athlete must be treated as an individual.

22. Anxiety and Arousal • Anxiety - subjective feeling of apprehension accompanied by a heightened level of physiological arousal. • Physiological arousal - autonomic response that results in the excitation of various organs of the body. • Trait and state anxiety • Trait: integral part of an individual’s personality. • State: emotional response to a specific situation that results in feelings of fear, tension, or apprehension. • Find the optimal level of arousal that allows for peak performance.

23. Reducing Anxiety- Athletes • Use physical activity to release stress & anxiety. • Pre-competition routines. • Simulate games in practice. • Tailor preparation for game to the individual athlete. • Build self-confidence and high, realistic expectations. • Promote use of positive self-talk. • Keep errors in perspective • Keep athletes’ focus on present, not past events. • Incorporate relaxation training as necessary.

24. Goal-setting Overview Mechanism • Specification of a level of proficiency • Types of goals • Outcome goals • Interpersonal comparison • Performance goals • Personal achievement • Process goals • Technique • Focuses attention • Mobilizes effort • Fosters persistence • Promotes development of new learning strategies

25. SMART Goal-setting • S = specific goals versus general • M = measurable goals to monitor progress • A = action-oriented goals • R = realistic but achievable with effort • T = time frame for achievement

26. Principles of Goal-setting • Write goals down • Incorporate different types of goals • Set short- and long-term goals • Establish individual goals within the team or group context • Determine goals for practice and competition • Ensure goals are internalized • Regularly evaluate progress • Provide for individual differences

27. Self-Talk Impact Types • Cognitive approach – relationship between individual’s thoughts and performance • Positive or negative influence • “Self-talk occurs whenever an individual thinks, whether making statements internally or externally.” (Williams & Leffingwell) • Task-relevant statements • Remind self of technique or strategy • Positive statements • Effort, persistence, confidence • Mood statements • Modify intensity

28. Self-Talk Application Modification • Enhancing of skill acquisition • Focusing of attention • Modifying activation • Promoting self-confidence • Thought-stopping • Replacing negative thoughts with positive thoughts • Countering • Reframing

29. Imagery Types Key Features • External imagery • Athletes see themselves performing as if watching a videotape of their performance • Internal imagery • Athletes construct the image of the performance from the perspective of their own eyes, as if they were side their body when performing • Multiple perspectives • Vividness – critical feature • Multiple senses • Incorporation of emotions • Controllability

30. Uses of Imagery • Developing sport skills • Correcting errors • Rehearsing performance strategies • Creating an optimal mental focus for competition • Developing pre-performance routines • Learning and enhancing mental skills • Facilitating recovery from injuries and return to competition Vealey & Greenleaf

31. Intervention Strategies • Help athletes achieve optimal performance • Management of anxiety and arousal • Cognitive strategies • Restructuring • Thought stopping • Self-talk • Imagery • Goal setting