Argument

1. Argument “The end of argument or discussion should be, not victory, but enlightenment.” --Joseph Joubert

2. Argument • “Everything we say or do presents some kind of argument, takes some kind of position” (82). • “A genre of writing that uses reasons and evidence to support a claim or position and, sometimes, to persuade an audience to accept that position” (489).

3. Key Features • A clear and arguable position—a position must be arguable and have at least two sides or points of view. You must argue something that is plausible, reasonable, supportable, and worthy of being taken seriously.

4. Key Features • Necessary background information—sometimes there is additional information that must be presented so the reader can fully understand the argument • Good reasons—a position itself cannot make an argument; the argument comes from the reasons provided to back up the argument

5. Key Features • Convincing support—in order for your argument to be fully understood, you must provide support for your reasons. Support can include: facts, statistics, expert testimony, anecdotal evidence, case studies, textual evidence, etc.

6. Key Features • Appeals to the readers values—appeals try to reach the reader on three possible levels. • Emotional appeal—soliciting (playing to) emotions in people using such emotions as fear, rage, hope, vanity, etc. • Logical appeal—establishing truths, opinions from experts, expert testimony, primary sources, statistics, personal experiences, etc. • Ethical appeal—this is the image portrayed of the writer; the writer sounds fair minded, pleasant, objective, etc.

7. Key Features • A trustworthy tone—the perception the audience has of the writer (or presenter); it is how we sound to the audience. You win the audience by sounding like you know what you are talking about.

8. Key Features • Careful consideration of other positions—there will always be people who disagree with your position. We need to consider those positions and acknowledge those views and opinions, and if possible refute them in our own arguments. • Considering others’ views gives the writer credibility by making the audience believe that the writer has considered all possible “parts” to the argument and fully understands the issue.

9. Choosing a Topic Pick a topic: • Of interest to you • That you aren’t too close to • That is focused, but not too narrow • That you have a personal connection to

10. Choosing a Topic • Think about roles you play such as: personal, family, school, work, public, etc. • Make sure the argument covers only one issue

11. Proof • Thesis—a claim or statement of the writer’s position or main point • Qualify your thesis: • Can it be true in some cases? • Can it be true at some times? • Can it be true for some groups or people? • Can it be true under certain circumstances?

12. Proof • Come up with good reasons? • Why is this true? • How can we prove it? • Develop support: • Facts • Statistics • Scenarios • Expert testimony • Textual evidence • Case studies or observations • Anecdotal evidence

13. Acknowledging Other Positions • Remember that this goes to your credibility. It appears that you have done the research fully. • Acknowledge others by: • Conceding doubts, concerns, objections, etc. • Refute other positions • Is their reasoning flawed? • Is their evidence inadequate? • Are there short comings? • Watch for fallacies

14. Writing a Draft • Beginnings—are important to attract our readers and tell them what is to come. Here is how: • Offer background information • Define key terms • Get the readers’ attention • Explain the context for your position • State your thesis • Forecast your organization • Ask a question • Give a quote • Connect your subject to the readers’ interests

15. Writing a Draft • Ending—these are the last words the reader will read, so you want them to remember your piece. Here is how: • Restate your main points • Discuss the implications of your argument • Refer to the beginning • Propose an action • Give a quote • Ask a rhetorical question

16. Think About Design • How will the textual layout influence the reader? Look at: • Typeface • Headings • Lists • Graphs • Illustrations • White Space

17. Revising • Is there sufficient background or contextual information? • Is there a clear thesis? • Are the reasons plausible? • Is there enough support? • Are the sources appropriate? • Do you have enough sources? • Are they credible? • Can readers follow your line of reasoning? • Have you considered potential objections? • Are the sources documented fully and carefully?

18. Looking at Your Work • What did you do well? • What could be improved? • How did you go about researching this topic? • How did others respond to your work? • How did you go about drafting your piece? • Did you do graphic elements? • Did they help? • What would you do differently next time? • What have you learned about your writing ability? • What do you need to work on for future writings?