Essential grammar

1. Essential grammar 重要基礎文法 02

2. Contents: • Parallelism Structure • Relative clauses • Time clauses • Subject • Subject-Verb agreement • Dangling and misplaced modifiers

3. Parallelism structural平行結構或對稱結構 Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctionssuch as "and" or "or." • With the -ing form (gerund) of words: Ex: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling. • With infinitive phrases: Ex: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle. Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle. (Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

4. 當兩個或兩個以上的同等分 (主詞,動詞,受詞,敘語, 形容詞, 副詞, 受詞補語等) 對等平行時, 要求他們的詞性或結構相同, 即 名詞對名詞 , 形容詞對形容詞, 副詞對副詞 , 不定詞對不 定詞, 介詞片語對介詞片語 等等. • You may either stand up orsit down. • Sam neither has long hair, nor wears jeans. • There is always a gap betweenwhat we sayandwhat we do.

5. Do not mix forms • Ex. 1(X) Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle. (O) Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle. • Ex. 2(X) The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner. (O) The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.

6. Ex. 3(X) The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low. (O) The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, ____________________.

7. Parallelism - Clauses A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism. • Ex. 1(X) The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game. (O) The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game. (O) The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

8. Ex. 2(X) The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations,correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs. (O) The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs. “Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form after a colon”

9. Clause子句

10. Clause 1. 獨立子句(independent clause) = 主要主句 (main clause) 子句係利用三種不同的方式來結合： (1) 對等 (coordination) (2) 附屬 (subordination) (3) 分號 (semicolon) 2. 從屬子句(dependent clause) = 附屬子句 (subordinate clause) (1) 名詞子句(noun clauses) –主詞 / 受詞 / 介系詞受詞 / 主詞補語 (2) 形容詞子句(adjective clauses) – 主格 / 受格 / 所有格 (3) 副詞子句(adverb clauses) – 時間 3. 關係子句(relative clause) = 由一個關係代名詞 (relative pronoun：that, which, who, whom, whose 等) 所引導的附屬子句 4.限定子句(restrictive clause) = essential 5.非限定子句(nonrestrictive clause) = nonessential

11. 獨立子句(independent clause) 三種不同的方式來結合： 1. 對等 (coordination) :對等連接詞 (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so) 來結合獨立子句 Ray thought about joining the church choir, but she never talked about it. 2. 附屬 (subordination) 用一個附屬連接詞或一個關係代名詞,將其中一個子句變成附屬 子句。子句以附屬或從屬字做開頭時,就不再是獨立子句。 Although Rita often thought about joining the choir, she never talked about it. Rita never talked about joining the choir, because she was afraid her friends would make fun of her.

12. 3. 分號 (semicolon) 可在連接副詞 (conjunctive adverb，亦稱語氣轉折字 transitional expression： (eg. However, therefore…) 的協助 下，連接兩個獨立子句。但分號應盡量少用，只有當兩個獨立 子句在長度和意思上關係非常密切，且具有良好對等關係時才 使用. Rita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked her to sing at their wedding. Rita’s voice has a good quality; furthermore, she enjoys using it.

13. 從屬子句(dependent clause) (1) 名詞子句(noun clauses)- 具備名詞的功能 主詞 / 受詞 / 介系詞受詞 / 主詞補語 (2) 形容詞子句(adjective clauses) –如形容詞 主格 / 受格 / 所有格 (3) 副詞子句(adverb clauses) –提供有關主要子句「到底怎麼回事」的資訊：where, when, why When the movie is over, we'll go downtown.

15. Clauses 1. 獨立子句(independent clause) = 主要主句 (main clause) 子句係利用三種不同的方式來結合： (1) 對等 (coordination) (2) 附屬 (subordination) (3) 分號 (semicolon) 2. 從屬子句(dependent clause) = 附屬子句 (subordinate clause) (1) 名詞子句(noun clauses) –主詞 / 受詞 / 介系詞受詞 / 主詞補語 (2) 形容詞子句(adjective clauses) – 主格 / 受格 / 所有格 (3) 副詞子句(adverb clauses) – 時間 3. 關係子句(relative clause) = 由一個關係代名詞 (relative pronoun：that, which, who, whom, whose 等) 所引導的附屬子句 4.限定子句(restrictive clause) = essential 5.非限定子句(nonrestrictive clause) = nonessential

16. 限定子句(restrictive clause) Examples: • The person (who[m]) she met at Ken's party called her last night. • The person who called yesterday will call again this afternoon. • The soup that (which) Sally made is too salty. Examples: • Jim Peterson, who(m) Judy met at Ken's party, called her last night. • Your mother, who called yesterday, called again this afternoon. • Sally's vegetable beef soup, which is in the big white bowl, is too salty. 非限定子句(nonrestrictive clause)

17. Special notes of restrictive & nonrestrictive clauses 1. Because non-restrictive adjective clauses give extra information, we "set them apart" from the main sentence by using commas. 2. Most relative pronouns (who, whom, which, whose) can be used in both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses, but “that” cannot. “that” - used only in restrictive clauses (X) This afternoon you had a call from your mother, that also called yesterday. (O) This afternoon you had a call from your mother, who also called yesterday. (X) Hamburgers, that are actually made from beef, are popular in the U.S.A. (O) Hamburgers, which are actually made from beef, are popular in the U.S.A.

18. Adjective Clause形容詞子句

19. Adjective Clause形容詞子句 • Adjective clauses (relative clauses) are like "sentences inside sentences." The "job" of adjective clauses is to modify (describe, identify, make specific) the noun phrases that they follow. • Adjective clauses have several parts: a relative pronoun, a subject, and a verb. • Adjective clauses are sometimes described as dependent clauses because they make no sense by themselves: they need the words of the main sentences to which they are attached in order to show complete thoughts.

20. In adjective clauses, the relative pronoun is a kind ofconnecting word. Without the adjective clause, the meaning of the modified noun phrase (and of the sentence) is unclear and incomplete. Examples: • I know a person who / that can help you.I know a person who(m) / that you can help. • I know a person whose advice I can trust. • I know a person to whom I can refer you. I know a person who(m) / that I can refer you to. • I want a car that / which gets good gas mileage.I can't afford the car that / which I really want.

21. Types of Adjective Clauses 1. "Subject Pattern" - the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. The man who / that talked to us was very friendly. Do you know the man who / that talked to us?     2. "Object Pattern" - the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. The people who(m) / that we met seemed very friendly. The people to whom / that we were speaking seemed very friendly. The people who(m) / that we were speaking to seemed very friendly. I recently saw the people to whom / that we were talking. I recently saw the people who(m) / that we were talking to.    3. Clauses Showing Possession- the relative pronoun is possessive The people whose names are called will work the first shift. Do you know the student whose brother won a gold medal in the Olympics?

22. (1) Subject Pattern Clauses - the relative pronounare the grammatical subjects of the clauses. Examples: • A man spoke to us. The man was wearing a green suit. - A man who (that*) was wearing a green suit spoke to us. • The new car is parked outside. The new car belongs to Bob. The new car that (which*) is parked outside belongs to Bob.

23. More on Subject Pattern Clauses • Reductions: Clauses with BE When a subject-pattern adjective clause contains BE, the relative pronoun and BE can often be omitted: The woman who is talking to Janet is her sister. That man who is from Sweden speaks six languages. The skates that are beside the door belong to my brother.

24. More on Subject Pattern Clauses • Rephrasing: Clauses with HAVE When an adjective clause contains HAVE (meaning "own," "possess,“ or "is characterized by"), another kind of change is possible: Do you know anyone who has change for a dollar? There's only one person who has blond hair in my class.

25. (2) Object Pattern Clauses The relative pronoun replaces the object of the clause. Examples: • The person called me. We met the person at Jack's party. The person who(m) (that*) we met at Jack's party called me. • I enjoyed talking to the person. We met the person at Jack's party. I enjoyed talking to the person who(m) (that*) we met at Jack's party. • The trip was quite interesting. I took the trip last week. The trip that (which*) I took last week was quite interesting. • I enjoyed the trip. I took the trip last week. I enjoyed the trip that (which*) I took last week.

26. (3) Possessive Adjective Clauses In clauses of this type, whose shows possession. It is always combined with a noun or noun phrase. Examples: • The author is Jonathan Stones. She likes the author's books best. The author whose books she likes best is Jonathan Stones. • The people will be glad to help you. The people's names are on this list. The people whose names are on this list will be glad to help you.

27. Whose clauses for “Things” Example: • She just bought a computer. The computer's processor speed is 450 mhz. She just bought a computer ??? processor speed is 450 mhz.

28. Sentences with adjective clauses like the above are awkward because whose seems more appropriate for people than for things. We can avoid this problem by rephrasingthe adjective clause: • She just bought a computer which/that has a processor speed of 450 mhz. • Bill has a blue car.

29. Special notes of adjective clauses

30. Special notes of adjective clauses 1. Adjective clauses come after the nouns that they modify: (X) The new car belongs to Bob that is parked outside. (O)The new car that is parked outside belongs to Bob. (X)The trip was quite interesting that I took last week. (O)The trip that I took last week was quite interesting. 2. The relative pronouns who and that are used to refer to people, but who is more common.  3. The relative pronouns that and which are used to refer to things, but that is more common.   When do I have to repay the money that / which I borrowed?

31. 4. The relative pronoun “that” cannot be used in nonrestrictive clauses (X) The new car, that is parked outside, belongs to Bob. 5. The relative pronouns whom and that are used to refer to people, but whom is more common. Also, whom is used mostly in writing and very formal speech, but who is used for both subjects and objects in everyday conversation and casual speech. The only difference between who in subject- and in object-pattern clauses is in word order: • (subject pattern) That's the person who was talking to us. • (object pattern) That's the person who we were talking to.

32. 6. Adjective Clauses as Objects of Prepositions Examples: 1. The woman is right over there. You were talking about the woman. (O) formal: The woman about whom you were talking is right over there. (O) "everyday": The woman who / that you were talking about is right over there. (O) The woman you were talking aboutis right over there. (X) The woman about who you were talking is right over there. (X) The woman about that you were talking is right over there. 2. The book is rather expensive. He referred to the book. (O) formal: The book to which he referred is rather expensive. (O) "everyday": The book that / which he referred to is rather expensive. (O) The book he referred to is rather expensive. (X) The book to that he referred is rather expensive.

33. Omitting Relative Pronouns 關代可否省略的時機： • 可省略： (1)關係子句中已有主詞，關代不當主詞時 (2)關代雖當主詞用，和beV.一起省略 I know the girl who you’re talking about. I know the girl who is next to you. That's the person who(m) / that we were talking to. (3)關代 + beV The student who is making a speech is Jack. My mother finally found the vase that was broken by me. (4)關代 + V The student who attend that school receive a good education. People who make a lot of money are not necessarily happy.

34. 不可省略： (1)關代當主詞用，後接一般動詞 (2)關代當受詞用，前面有介系詞 I know the girl who sings the song well. I know the girl to whom you’re talking about.

35. Practice: 1. ____ Bob's sister who is a nurse is named Angie. 2. ____Dr. Roberts, that teaches my physics class, was born in Germany. 3. ____ Mike Miller, a basketball player, has few fans in Taiwan. 4. ____ He broke that precious vase, which made his father very angry. 5. ____ I saw a boy and a dog who were playing in the park.

36. Time Clauses • Time clauses and phrases help show the continuity • of development in a process. • The most common time words used to introduce • time clauses are:before, after, when, while, as, • and until. • Examples: • Autumn is the season. The leaves of many trees change color • during the season. • 2. Thanksgiving is a holiday. Families like to gather together on the holiday.

37. Time clauses1. Simultaneous action _______ the butter is melting, break three eggs into a bowl.

38. Time clauses2. Sequential action • ________the eggs have thickened, serve them with toast. • The eggs must have thicken ______ you serve them. • Do not serve the eggs ______ they have thickened. (1st action) (2nd action) (1st action) (2nd action)

39. Time clauses3. participial phrases • Simultaneous actions clause: While you are melting the butter, break three eggs into a bowl. phrase: _____________________, break … • Sequential actions clause: After/ When you have beaten the eggs, pour them into the pan. phrase: _________________________, pour …

40. Common sentence connectors of time during this period at the same time meanwhile • Melt the butter in the pan; ___________, beat the eggs. (Simultaneous action) • Beat the eggs well; ___________, pour them into the pan. afterwards after that then following that at that point (Sequential actions)

41. 關係副詞 where where表地方 = in which Examples: This is the house where John lives. = This is the house in which John lives. = This is the house which John lives in. = This is the house John lives in. 關係副詞where：因其詞性為副詞，不能當作關係子句中的主詞或受詞 (=in/on/at/to + which)，所以where帶領的關係子句中一定另有主詞 Examples (O) John bought the house, which is beautiful. (X) John bought the house, where is beautiful. This is the room. I study in the room. = This is the room which I study in. = This is the room in which I study. = This is the room where I study. (in which = where)

42. Special notes 1. Do not use prepositions before either where or when: (X) They live in a building in where there are many apartments. (X) I'll always remember the day on when we met. (X) Autumn is the season during when the leaves of many trees change color.     2. In very formal writing, you may use prepositions before which--but not before that: (X) They live in a building in that there are many apartments. (O) They live in a building in whichthere are many apartments. (X) I'll always remember the day on that we met. (O) I'll always remember the day onwhich we met. (X) Autumn is the season during that the leaves of many trees change color. (O) Autumn is the season duringwhichthe leaves of many trees change color.

43. when - 時間點 瞬間動作 / 時段 同時性 / 連續性 / 非連續性 • At what time – at the time at which (adv) (conj)When's the baby due?We'll go when you're ready.She was only twenty when she had her first baby.He was quite shocked when I told him.I was just getting into the bath when the telephone rang.When I got home, he was having supper. 2. Considering that - considering the fact that: (conj) How can you say you don't like something when you've never even tried it! You can't complain of being lonely when you don't make any effort to meet people. 3. Although – despite the fact that (conj) He says he hasn't got any money when in fact he's got thousands of dollars in his account. I don't understand how he can say that everything's fine when it's so obvious that it's not.

44. while - 時段 / 同時性 / 連續性動詞 1. a while a length of time (n) I only stayed for a short while."When did that happen?" "Oh, it was a while ago (= a long time ago).I haven't seen him for a while (= for a long time). 2. during the time that, or at the same time as (conj)I read it while you were drying your hair.While I was in Italy I went to see Alessandro.I thought I heard him come in while we were having dinner."I'm going to the post office." "While you're there can you get me some stamps?“ 3. despite the fact that; although (conj)While I accept that he's not perfect in many respects, I do actually like the man.While I fully understand your point of view, I do also have some sympathy with Michael. 4. compared with the fact that; but  (conj) Tom is very extrovert and confident while Katy's shy and quiet.I do every single bit of housework while he just does the dishes.

45. As - 同時性 / 正在發展或變化 / 連續性 1.Comparison - used in comparisons to refer to the degree of something (adv) She'll soon be as tall as her mother.I can't run as fast as you.It's not as good as it used to be. 2. Purpose – used to describe the purpose or quality of someone or something (prep) She works as a waitress.It could be used as evidence against him.The news came as quite a shock to us. 3. Because (conj) As it was getting late, I decided to book into a hotel.You can go first as you're the oldest. 4. While (conj) - during the time thatI saw him as I was coming into the building.He gets more attractive as he gets older. As he grew older he became more confident. 5. Like (conj) - in the same way He got divorced, (just) as his parents had done years before.This year, as in previous years, tickets sold very quickly.As with his earlier movies, the special effects in his latest film are brilliant.As I was just saying, I think the proposal needs further consideration.

47. Special notes 1. 在…時刻 (單一時間點) – when 用終止性或連續性動詞 When I got home, he was having supper. When I was young, I liked dancing. 2. 有動作先後關係時when 不能與 while 互換 When he has finished his work, he takes a short rest. (after) When I got to the cinema, the film had already begun. (before) 3. when 句子裡動詞為終止性時 不能與 while 互換 When he came yesterday, we were playing basketball. 4.句子裡表動作的是連續性動詞 when while 可互換 While / when we were still laughing, the teacher came in. 5. While 常用來表示兩各同時進行的長動作 6. As 多用來談兩各平行動作或兩種狀態變化 時間性比較緊湊

48. practice 1. _____________the doorbell rang, Brian was taking a shower. 2. __________ he was watching the news on TV, Jonathan was eating his dinner. 3. Tom was backing into a parking space ____________ he heard a crunch. 4. ______ I was young, I liked dancing. 5. ______ I slept, a thief broke in. 6. ______ I came into the room, I found him lying there asleep. 7. ______ I was walking down the street, an American asked me for directions to the nearest station. 8. ______________we were still laughing, the teacher came in.

49. Practice: 1. ____ University of Columbia is the place which our study was conducted in. 2. ____ Tomorrow is the day on when he has his job interview. . 3. ____ 1990 is the year in which they were married. 4. ____ This is the apartment which we have lived in for 7 years. . 5. ____ The bus had left while we arrived at the bus stop.

50. 複合關係代名詞whoever, whomever, whichever, whosever, whatever 都有“any”的意思 • I don’t need this book any more. Please give it to whoever needs it. = please give it to any who needs it. • You can try to say hello to whomever you meet. • Here are two cell phones. You can take whichever you like. • All of these are free. Just take whatever you want.