Honors Biology 2011-2012 Final Review

1. Honors Biology 2011-2012Final Review Aka What’s the Big Idea?

2. The Facts • When: Tuesday June 12th 7:45-9:15 am • Where: period 2 room 206 Roseland period 6 room 208 Mc Bride period 7 room 210 Goldman • What to bring: • several #2 pencils • Your textbook, the proctor will collect them at the start of the exam

3. The Test • There are 175 MC questions on the test. • The test will last 90 minutes • You may write on the booklet but all final answers go on the scantron form.

4. Chapters on the Final Exam • Chapters 1-10, 13-17 and 20. • On average about 15 questions per chapter. • Chapter 20 has about 30 questions

5. Ch. 1 Biology and You Big Ideas Themes in Biology Common Themes help to organize and study life. Evolution in the core theme Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life and the evolutionary adaptations of organisms to their environment. The Process of Science In studying nature, scientists make observations, form hypotheses, and test predications with experiments. Biology and Everyday Life Learning about biology helps us understand many issues involving science, technology and society. Key concepts • The scientific method • Characteristics of life • Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote • Light microscope vs. Electron microscope

6. Ch. 2 Chemistry of Life Big Ideas Elements, atoms and compounds Living organisms are made up of atoms of certain elements, mostly combined into compounds. Chemical Bonds The Structure of an atom determines what types of bonds it can form with other atoms. Organic Chemistry Life is carbon based. Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic Acids are the 4 main macromolecules in the living organims. Water’s life Supporting Properties The unique properties of water derive from the polarity of water molecules. Key concepts • Particles that make up an atom their location and charge. • Atomic Mass and Atomic #. • Compound vs. molecule • Types of bonds, classic examples of each. • Polarity • Solution • Solute vs. Solvent • pH scale, examples of common acids and bases. • Organic Compounds • Macromolecules: know their monomers and the structure and function of each macromolecule. • Enzymes • Activation energy • Reactant and Products

7. Ch. 3 Cell Structure Big Ideas Introduction to Cells Microscopes reveal the structure of cells – the fundamental units of life. The Nucleus and Ribosomes A cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried. out by the ribosomes. The endomembrane The endomembrane system participates in the manufacture, distribution and breakdown of materials. Energy Converting Organelles Mitochondria in all cells and chloroplast in plant cells function in energy processing. The cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces The cytoskeleton and extracellular components provide support, motility and functional connections. Key concepts • Types of microscopes • Microscope lingo: resolution and magnification • The Cell Theory • Cell Type: Prokaryotes s. Eukaryotes • Know structure and function of: The Cell Membrane Cell organelles

8. Ch. 4 Cells and Their Environment Big Ideas Membrane structure and Function Membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins with many function.s Passive Transport Passive transport is diffusion across the membrane that requires no energy from the cell. Active Transport Cells expend energy in the active transport of a solute. Transport of Large Molecules Endocytosis and Exocytosis transport large molecules through the use of vesicles Key concepts • Passive Transport • Diffusion • Osmosis • Facilitated Diffusion • Active Transport • Sodium potassium Pump • Endocytosis • Exocytosis • Types of solutions and how they effect the movement of water into or out of a cell.

9. Ch. 5 Photosynthesis Big Ideas An overview of photosynthesis Plants and other photoautotrophs use the energy of sunlight to convert CO2 and H20 to sugar and O2. The Light Reactions: Converting Solar Energy to Chemical Energy. In the Thylakoids of the chloroplast, the light reactions generate ATP and NADPH. The Calvin Cycle: Reducing CO2 to sugar. The Calvin cycle which takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast, uses ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar. Photosynthesis provides the energy and building material for ecosystems. It also affects global climate and the ozone layer. Key concepts • ATP is the energy molecule in all living things. Energy is released from ATP when a phosphate is removed. • Energy flow: The sun  producers  consumers • During photosynthesis plants gather the suns energy with light absorbing molecules called pigments (Carotenoids, chlorophyll) • The role of NADP+ in photosynthesis is to act as an electron carrier (the ‘empty bus’) • Light Reactions; know where it takes place, what goes in, and what comes out • Calvin Cycle; know where it takes place, what goes in, and what comes out • Temperature, Ph, Light can affect the rate of photosynthesis

10. Ch. 5 Cellular Respiration Big Ideas Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of energy Cellular Respiration oxidizes fuel molecules and generates ATP for Cellular work. Stages of Cellular Respiration The main stages of cellular respiration are glycolysis, the kreb cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy Fermentation regenerates NAD+, allowing glycolysis and ATP production to continue without oxygen. Connections Between Metabolic Pathways Te breakdown pathways of cellular respiration intersect with biosynthetic pathways. Key concepts • Cellular Respiration releases energy (ATP) by breaking down food molecules • The Flow: Glycolysis Krebs Cycle  Electron Transport Chain • Glycolysis: Where it takes place, the reactants and the products • Krebs Cycle: Where it takes place, the products and the reactants • Electron Transport Chain: Where it takes place, the products and the reactants • Fermentation: The two types and the purpose of fermentation

11. Ch. 6 Chromosomes and Cell Reproduction Big Ideas Cell Division and Reproduction Cell division underlies many of life’s important processes. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis Cells produce genetic duplicates through an ordered, tightly controlled series of steps. Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure Errors in cell division can produce organisms with abnormal numbers of chromosomes Key Concepts • Compare Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cell division (binary fission vs. mitosis and cytokinesis) • Major events of the cell cycle • Basic steps of mitosis: know the name, order and what happens in each step. • Mitosis out of control = Cancer • Autosomes vs. sex chromosomes • Human Karyotype what it tells you • Types of chromosomal mutations: deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation.

12. Ch. 7 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Big Ideas Meiosis and Crossing Over The process of meiosis produces genetically varied haploid gametes from diploid cells. Key Concepts • Haploid Cells (n) vs. Diploid Cells (2n) • Meiosis = Reduction division • Know the 8 steps of meiosis by name and what is happening in each step. • Crossing over=occurs in prophase I of meisis what happens, why is it important? • Independent assortment • Spermtogenesis vs. oogenesis

13. Ch. 8 Mendel and Heredity Big Idea Mendel’s Laws A few simple and long established rules explain many aspects of heredity. Variations on Mendel’s Laws Some inheritance patterns are more complex than the ones described by Mendel The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Hereditary rules can be understood by following the behavior of chromosomes Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes Genes found on sex chromosomes display unique patterns of inheritance Key Concepts • P, F1 and F2 generation • Punnett squares • Dominant vs. recessive • Homozygous vs. heterozygous • Genotype vs. phenotype • Test Cross: how it is done, why it is used • Autosomal vs. Sex-linked traits • Incomplete dominance and Codominance • Pedigree: what does it show you? How do you read it? • Law of Independent Assortment and Law of segregation.

14. Ch. 9 DNA: The Genetic Material Big Idea The Structure of the Genetic Material A series of experiments established DNA as the molecule of heredity DNA Replication Each DNA strand can serve as a template for another Key Concepts • Griffith= transformation of bacteria • Avery= DNA was the genetic material • Watson and Crick= structure of DNA • Structure of DNA= phosphate, sugar, nitrogen base.. • Process of replication • Base pairing Rule • Role of Enzymes in Replication • Prokaryotic Replication vs. Eukaryotic

15. Ch. 10 How Proteins Are Made Big Ideas The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein Genotype controls phenotype through the production of proteins Central Dogma DNA ------- RNA -------Protein The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria Viruses and bacteria are useful model systems for the study of molecular biology Key Concepts • DNA molecule vs.RNA molecule • The process of transcription: where does it happen what is the outcome? • The process of translation: where does it happens what is the outcome? • Given a sequence of DNA show the mRNA and the tRNA molecules. • Use the mRNA molecule and the genetic code to produce an amino acid sequence.

16. Ch. 13 The Theory of Evolution Big Idea Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Darwin’s theory of evolution explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life Evidence of Evolution Examples of Evolution Key Concepts • Darwin and his work on the Galapagos Islands • Process of Natural Selection • Evidence of Evolution Fossils, Homologous Structures, Comparative embryology, DNA conservation, Protein conservation • Examples of Evolution Darwin’s finches ( beaks based on food source) Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria ( TB outbreaks)

17. Ch. 14 Classification of Organisms Big Idea The Taxonomic Hierarchy helps scientist to group and study organisms. Systematics connects classification to evolutionary history Key Concepts • Kingdom, Phylum. Class, Order , Family Genus, Species • Biological Species Concept • How to analyze a cladogram

18. Ch. 15 Populations Big Idea The Evolution of Populations Genetic variations makes evolution possible within a population. Mechanisms of Microevolution Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter gene pools; natural selection leads to adaptive evolution. Key Concepts • Definition of a population • Density dependent factors • Carrying Capacity • Density independent factors • Exponential Growth Curve vs. logistic Growth curve • Conditions of Hardy Weinberg Principal • Directional Selection vs. Stabilizing Selection

19. Ch. 16 Ecosystems Big Ideas Ecology : The study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with their physical environment. Structure and Dynamics Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling. Key Concepts • Hierarchy of Ecology • Abiotic vs. Biotic • Types of Succession • Energy flow through the Ecosystem • Producers, consumers • Trophy levels and energy pyramids • 10 % Rule • Food chain vs. food web • Water, Carbon, Nitrogen Cycle why are they necessary? What does each provide?

20. Ch. 17 Biological Communities Big Ideas Community Structure and Dynamics Community ecologists examine factors that influence the species composition and distribution of communities and factors that affect community stability. Key Concepts • Coevolution • Predator Prey Relationships • Symbiotic Relationships: Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism • Competition • Niche • Realized Niche • Basic Characteristics of the Biomes

21. Ch. 20 Viruses and Bacteria Big Ideas Viruses Living or non-living? Bacteria Prokaryotes, the smallest organisms known, are extraordinarily diverse Viruses and Bacteria are useful model systems for the study of molecular biology Key Concepts • Basic Structure of Viruses • Characteristics of viruses • Lytic vs. LysogenicLifecyles • Vaccinations • HIV and AIDs • Basic Structure of Bacteria • 3 shapes of bacteria and scientific name • Endospores • Antibiotic: purpose and how they work • Good Bacteria vs. Pathogenic Bacteria (examples) • Obtain Energy : • Photosynthesizers • Chemoautotrophs • Heterotrophs