Personality

1. Personality • An individual’s unique characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting • Inferred from consistency we observe in one’s behavior (cross-situational) • Dynamic (Changeable) process particularly as a function of early experience

2. Personality Traits A personality trait is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations. When you go to describe an individual’s personality, this is usually done by listing the personality traits the individual possesses. What are the Basic traits that form the core of our personality? A number of psychologists have taken a position on this question.

3. The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits

4. Assessing Personality Personality Inventories – long questionnaires which are designed to assess several personality traits at one time MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) is the most widely used of all personality tests. Projective Tests – ask subjects to interpret stimuli which are intentionally vague or ambiguous. To provide an interpretation, subject must take their own needs, hopes, and fears and project them into the interpretation, thus revealing characteristics of their personality. TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) Rorschach Test Sentence Completion Test Word Association Test

5. Theories of Personality Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud) Freud – was trained as a physician and came to specialize in nervous disorders. In the course of his work, Freud found patients who suffered debilitating symptoms (e.g., paralysis, blindness) that had no neurological basis. He concluded that their problems must have a psychological rather than a physiological origin. Patients could not identify the underlying psychological factors that were causing there symptoms (i.e., the origins of the symptoms were in the subjects unconscious mind). To get to these underlying causes required accessing the unconscious regions of the patients mind. Special techniques would be required.

6. Psychoanalytic Techniques Psychoanalysis – a treatment technique that seeks to expose and interpret the unconscious forces causing psychological disturbance. Hypnosis – bypasses the usual self-censorship mechanisms that cause are true feelings and beliefs to be held back Dream Interpretation – the content of dreams has hidden meaning which must be understood to gain entry into the unconscious Free Association – patient asked to relax and say whatever came into their minds no matter how embarrassing or how trivial. Relax the body, relax the mind. Thus the patient reclines during free association.

7. Psychoanalytic Principles Psychological Determinism – present behavior (personality) is directly caused by past experience Childhood experience forges the adult personality that will eventually emerge. “The child is the father of the man” Unconscious Determination of Behavior – we behave the ways that we do for reasons that we are totally unaware of

8. Levels of Consciousness Conscious – though being immediately experienced Preconscious – can be brought into consciousness through volition Unconscious – not accessible through ordinary means, the largest level, contributes the most to the determination of personality

9. Structures of the Personality In Freud’s view, human personality arises from a conflict between our aggressive, pleasure-seeking biological impulses and the internalized social restraints against them. To understand the mind’s dynamics during this conflict, Freud proposed three interacting structures of personality: Id – is the biological arm of the personality (our life force). It operates via the pleasure principle. Produces the basic drives to survive and reproduce. Operates at the unconscious level. Ego – is the cognitive arm of the personality. Operates via the reality principle, that is, it seeks to satisfy the needs of the id in realistic ways. The ego contains our conscious perceptions, thoughts and judgments. Superego – develops about age 4 or 5. It represents the social arm of the personality. The inculcation of societal values and morals, the superego operates according to the ideality principle. Responsible for our sense of pride and guilt. Libidorefers to the psychic energy (produced by the id) which supplies the energy force for all systems of the personality.

11. Defense Mechanisms Freud believed that our psychological lives are dominated by conflict. We are driven by our internal biological urges which are being restrained by our socially responsible superegos. Defense Mechanisms are largely unconscious processes that protects a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety or guilt.

12. Defense Mechanisms Repression – a mechanism that pushes anxiety-arousing thoughts and feelings from consciousness. Repressed thoughts are pushed to the unconscious mind where they can produce powerful effects upon personality. Projection – attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another. Displacement – where sexual or aggressive impulses are diverted to an object or person that is more psychologically acceptable. Reaction Formation – where a person denies their own true feelings by espousing a position diametrically opposed to their own. Regression – when someone retreats to an earlier previously abandoned behavior pattern. Rationalization – creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior Identification – overcoming feelings of inadequacy by forming an association to some group or possession.

13. Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud asserted that the basic foundation for an individual’s personality is complete by age five. The psychosexual stages are developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leaves its mark on adult personality. Fixation involves a failure to move forward completely from one stage to the next. This can result is personality deficits in adulthood. Fixation at the oral stage sarcasm, smoking, eating, verbosity Fixation at the anal stage avarice, obstinacy, overcleanliness

14. Oedipus Complex According to Freud, a boy’s sexual urges become focused on his mother. This is coupled with the development of hostility toward the rival for the mother’s attention – the father. But the father is bigger and stronger and thus is feared. Castration Complex – fear that the father will retaliate against the boy depriving him of what he now values most – the penis. Mother becomes center of an approach-avoidance conflict. Solution to the conflict – the process of identification whereby the boy obtains indirect (vicarious) satisfaction of the libido. Boys at this stage start to mimic their father and seem to want to be just like him. Through this identification process children’s superego gains strength as they incorporate many of their same-sex parents values (gender identity). Electra Complex – some psychologists have suggested that a parallel process occurs in girls (sexual attraction to father, fear of mother, identification with mother).

15. Theories of Personality Humanism (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) – largely a reaction against the psychoanalytic view that people are driven by primitive, animalistic drives. Humanism emphasizes the unique qualities of human, especially their self-determination and their potential for personal growth. Rogers viewed personality structure as having just one construct (the self-concept). The self-concept refers to our own beliefs concerning our nature, qualities, and behavioral propensities. We are aware of our own self-concept, it’s not buried in the unconscious. Your self-concept is subjective and may not be entirely consistent with experience. Incongruence undermines psychological well-being

16. The Development of the Self (Rogers) According to Rogers, people have a need for affection, love, and acceptance from others (positive regard). Early in life most of this comes from our parents. Conditional Positive Regard is when parents (or others) make their affection dependent upon a child behaving well or living up to expectations. Under these circumstances, children block out of their self-concept those experiences which make them feel unworthy. The conditions have been set for incongruence. Unconditional Positive Regard is when parents (or others) make it clear that their affection will be there regardless. Under these circumstances, children have less of a need to block out unworthy experiences. Their self-concept will have greater congruence with reality. According to Rogers, experiences which threaten people’s personal views of themselves are the principal cause of anxiety and psychological disturbance.

17. Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization The Hierarchy of Needs is a systematic arrangement of needs according to priority. Basic needs must be met before higher needs can be expressed. Self-Actualization – the highest need, the realization of one’s ultimate potential

18. The Social Cognitive Theory of Personality • Albert Bandura – proposed a theory of personality based primarily on the concept of observational learning. • How we behave and how our personality develops is largely a property our imitating behavior patterns we see in other significant figures in our lives. • These significant figures are called Models in Bandura’s theory. • Our earliest and most influential models are our parents. As we grow older, others become models for our behavior. • We imitate people we like and respect • We imitate people whom we see like ourselves or in our same situation • We imitate people whose behavior leads to positive outcomes

19. Self-Efficacy • Self-Efficacy is a powerful force in the development of one’s personality in Bandura’s theory. • Self-Efficacy refers to one’s belief about our ability to accomplish behaviors that will lead to expected outcomes. • If one’s self-efficacy is high confidence, sense of control, outgoing • If one’s self-efficacy is low worry, self-doubt, withdrawn Research shows individuals with high sense of self-efficacy: Greater success in smoking cessation, adhering to exercise program, coping with medical rehabilitation, greater success in academic pursuits, reduced vulnerability to anxiety and depression, enhanced performance in athletic competition, greater resistance to stress, etc. (pp 339-340)

20. The Connection Between Personality and Physical Structure Phrenology – the belief that personality was revealed by the shape of the head A popular view in the 1800’s but soon discredited except in extreme circumstances.

21. Constitutional Psychology William Sheldon (1940’s) – proposed and reported evidence of a strong relationship between body type (somatotypes) and personality characteristics. Took nude photos and did extensive personality testing on each of the subjects in his study. Looked for correlations between body style and personality traits displayed. Three main somatotypes which were found to correlate with three different personality constellations.

22. Sheldon’s Findings As simpleminded as the Sheldon system seems at first, there is a surprisingly high correlation between the somatotypes and their associated personalities. So body types and personalities go together but these data don’t tell us if the body type shapes the personality that one develops or if the personality one has causes the body to develop in a particular way.