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Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe. White settler colony Blacks relocated to overcrowded reserves Federation with Nyasaland (Malawi) and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia). Ian Smith UDI 1965. Broke away from Britain Attempted to have an apartheid system Reduced African rights. Two parties. Joshua Nkomo: ZAPU--Ndebele

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Zimbabwe

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  1. Zimbabwe • White settler colony • Blacks relocated to overcrowded reserves • Federation with Nyasaland (Malawi) and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)

  2. Ian Smith UDI 1965 • Broke away from Britain • Attempted to have an apartheid system • Reduced African rights

  3. Two parties • Joshua Nkomo: ZAPU--Ndebele • Robert Mugabe: ZANU--shona • Influence from China and Soviet Union

  4. Large number of refugees • Mid-1970s: Rhodesian security forces carried out a full scale counter-insurgency war, about half financed by South Africa • Many recruits for the guerrillas • Attacks from (and into) Mozambique • “Flame”

  5. Internal settlement in December 1979 • Independence • Ethnic politics: Shona and Ndebele continued • Almost all refugees returned home

  6. Refugees and Migrants Migrants face expulsion and hardships Refugees can contribute labor and help economically as consumers

  7. Definition of refugee (UNHCR) • Fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion • Outside his/her country • Unable, unwilling (fear but not personal convenience) to return

  8. UNHCR • Protection not for internally displaced persons • But cross-mandate approach: assistance to all needy people in an area to minimize competition and jealousy

  9. Africa: movement of people through time • Bantu migration • Colonial regulations caused men to work in mines--often in another area or other country • Ethnic groups separated during colonial period and then by new nation-states

  10. Current estimates of refugees • Africa 6.7 million refugees (9.2-14.3 million displaced persons) • World 18.5 million refugees (32.7-47.9 million displaced persons)

  11. Numbers: politically manipulated • Get more aid for larger numbers • Can change quickly--both increase and decrease

  12. Demographics • Many are women and children (often left out) • Many are poor and elderly • Some groups mainly male

  13. Positive effects of refugees • Greater market for local goods and foods • Can provide labor • Aid agencies build infrastructure (roads, water supplies, health clinics)

  14. Negative effects of refugees • Environmental degradation: large influxes cause damage to forests, animals overgraze lands • Reduce water volume and quality (silt the rivers), soil fertility affected • Tensions between refugees and local host populations

  15. Reasons for Refugees in Africa • Flagrant violation of human rights • Wars of national liberation • Algeria,, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea Bissau • Zimbabwe--750,000 refugees inside and outside the country (Movie: Flame) • Namibia, Eritrea • Western Sahara--in process

  16. Internal Repression • South Africa--had 3.5 million internally displaced--homelands policy under apartheid • 40,000 to 100,000 refugees and political exiles

  17. Repatriation • Land mines make it difficult to return to the land • Land has been sold or confiscated • War-torn economies

  18. Ethnic persecution • Burundi • Rwanda

  19. Religious persecution • Jehovah’s witnesses in Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique • Christians and traditional religionists in Sudan

  20. Ideological differences • “Cold-war” politics--Ethiopia • Lack of multiparties and dictatorships--political refugees --Malawi

  21. Migration in Africa • some est. 35 million • Plantation and farms-Burundi, Rwanda, Zaire to Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania • Sudanese migrated to the Middle East

  22. South Africa--mines • To South Africa from: Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe • 78% in 1978 to 40% foreigners mid-1980s • 176,000 (1989) to 153,000 (1992) foreign contract workers • 1990s/2000s mostly from Mozambique and Lesotho

  23. West Africa • Liberian civil war, ethnic conflicts in Sierra Leone • Cote d’Ivoire current coup • Flow goes from the poorer inland Sahelian countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger) to richer coastal states (Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria) • Spontaneous seasonal and long-term

  24. Brain Drain: Professionals • Thousands of Ghanaian professionals in Nigeria • Brain drain from Uganda and Nigeria, to South Africa; from South Africa to Europe and North America, etc.

  25. Migration • Usually of males from the rural areas • Question of whether agricultural production is affected • Comparisons with other countries need to look at who does the farming, as well as if male returns to do heavy agricultural work

  26. Agricultural production • Can decline if mostly women are left without capital and improved technologies • Can improve if remittances are used to hire labor and pay for agricultural investments (e.g., equipment, inputs)

  27. Health Problems • Migrants are a source of STIs/ STDs (e.g., HIV/AIDS) • Strain already under-funded health systems

  28. Causes of the refugee situation in Africa • The weak state • Colonialism bolstered state societies • Creation of tribes and ethnic groups pitted against each other for resources

  29. Why is the state weak? • Composed of a political elite • Not a large enough national middle or upper category of those with resources and education • Clientelism-networks of kinspeople, allied ethnics, party officials, civil servants, soldiers, traders • Patrimonial systems of rule

  30. States are composed of culturally diverse social groups (tribes) • Response to rivalries in 19th century • State does not control the means of production and distribution • Charismatic leaders sway populations • Political entrepreneurs cast their appeal in ethnic terms

  31. African political life consists of clientelist factions.. [ethnicity] • Conflict send waves of refugees to neighboring countries • Massive exit from the state • Cheap weapons = warrior bands

  32. Countries both produce refugees and grant asylum • Ethiopia • Eritrea • Sudan • Mozambique (previously) • Zimbabwe

  33. Sudan • Independence exacerbated interregional tensions • North: Muslim, Arabized, Arabic Language • in power (helped by colonial past--British and state societies) • looks to North Africa and Middle East (Libya, Iran, Iraq, Yemen) • South:Christian or animists, English language, pastoral people

  34. Sudan (produces and receives refugees) • Some refugee groups all young males • About 200,000 in Ethiopia, but millions suffering in south, 1/4 million around Khartoum • Old refugee camps of Ethiopians

  35. Chad: no refugee there from other countries • Muslim northerners, • Traditional religionists/Christians southerners • Originally lack of economic opportunity = emigration to Nigeria, CAR, Sudan • Then 500,000 left for Cameroon, Nigeria, CAR: none labeled as refugees

  36. 1981: 400,000 refugees after political upheaval • International intervention: French,against Libyans • Large numbers of women and children

  37. Uganda • Colonial period: Kabaka: king of the Buganda, large centrally organized kingdom Protestants and Catholics early on • Ganda built up enormous lead in education, politics

  38. Other kingdoms wanted participation • Political parties: Buganda and smaller centralized won, Obote became Prime minister and Kabaka became president • But then Idi Amin came in and ousted Obote

  39. Idi Amin • Brutal: 300,000 killed • Asian Exodus • Tanzanians restored order (1977--first time external country had done that)

  40. Uganda had 5 conflicts • Banyrwanda--mostly settled in the country, but no rights • (Origins: a new issue for Africa) • West Nile refugees (350,000): but were treated harshly • Karamoja: armed • Luwero triangle:750,000 around Kampala (massacres)

  41. Fall of Obote and the Acholi vs. Langi • Rise of Museveni • 160,000 refugees returned • A push factor from Sudan, as well as a pull factor from Uganda

  42. Southern Africa • White Settler colonies prevented negotiated decolonlization • mass appropriation of lands • mobilization along lines of ethnicity • African protests were weak • South Africa assisted white regimes (Zimbabwe) and then tried to de-stabilize black regimes (Angola and Mozambique)

  43. Angola • Large white settler population after WW II • Harsh treatment of Africans

  44. Liberation Movements • MPLA: urban, Luanda, mestico and assimilado, Augustino Neto: Cuba and Soviet Union • UPA/FNLA--Holden Roberto: wanted to reconstitue the Kongo--in with Mobuto/US • UNITA: Jonas Savimbi: rural, Ovimbundu--South Africa/US • 1/2 million refugees

  45. Mozambique • Harshness of colonial regime produced refugees to Tanzania and Zambia • FRELIMO: moderate at first (Edwardo Mondlane), then leftist-Marxist (Samora Machel) • Multiracial

  46. Millions of refugees, esp. to Malawi • S. Africa financed RENAMO • Brutal

  47. After independence, 1975 • most refugees returned home

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